Rome was a small town on central Italy’s Tiber River. in the eighth century B.C., Rome became an empire. Ancient Rome was a powerful and important civilization that ruled much of Europe for nearly 1000 years. The basis for much of Western culture comes from Ancient Rome.
One of the features of Roman domination is the use of the Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian). These languages are derived from Latin. Rome was a republic for 450 years. Then, it became an empire under the rule of first emperor, Augustus.
Rome was founded by two brothers, Remus and Romulus, nursed by a she-wolf. Remus was killed. Romulus became ruler and named the city after himself, Rome. The Ancient Romans worshipped a lot of different gods and goddesses. Each god and goddess had its specialty.
Ancient Rome had a unique architecture. Ancient Rome is underground. Ancient Romans had weird eating habits. They used to eat dormice and other weird foods like flamingo. They used to eat dormice and other weird foods like flamingo.
Ancient Romans were unique in art. Ancient Rome used to be covered in graffiti, just like today. Their graffiti was scratched into stone and not painted on with colour. The Romans believed in gods and goddesses who ruled over different areas of life.
As for every culture all over the world, There is a considerable difference between poor and rich people. In Rome, There was also a difference not only between poor and rich, but also among Rome being a kingdom, republic and empire.
Under the Roman Kingdom, daily life was focused on farming, fishing, worship, and family. Lower class people, called Plebeians, could not marry the nobles, called Patricians. A whole family would live together in one home; married daughters went to live with their husband’s family.
Women had no rights and kids did not go to school. Some kids were educated at home and all kids had many chores to do. The family was ruled by the oldest male in the family, called paterfamilias. He was responsible for all the actions of the family. He could exile members of the family, beat them or sell them into slavery.
A woman’s role was to teach her daughters how to behave, and to bear and raise children. They worked very hard. They trained children to obey elders. Children never talked back to an elder Roman or to their family. Older people were treated with honour and were respected for their wisdom.
People worshipped thousands of gods. They used to hold religious festivals at night after they are done with farming. They could buy and sell the goods they made and grew in a marketplace.
Under the Roman Republic, family was still important. Education got a significant importance too. Some kids went to school, Others were taught at home because education was not free. Women had a few freedom. They could shop, and visit the temples, and even stop to hear the great orators in the Forum.
The poor worked very hard still they had time to go to the bath and temples. Visiting temples were an important part in their day. By the end of the Roman republic, system went down. There was no police force. Streets became dangerous, but Romans became very sociable.
Under the Roman Empire, there were security forces in the streets. People come move around freely. Women had more freedom. They could run a business. They could even get a job. Poor could get married to the rich. Merchants managed to build villas in the countryside.
All Romans including men, women, kids, elders and slaves could attend events like races and gladitaor shows. Under the Empire, at first, it was a crime if you did not worship the Roman gods each day. Later on, it became a crime if you did.
Ancient Roman literature began sometime around 240 B.C. Latin was the main language used for writing during Ancient Rome. The earliest Roman literary works were historical epics retelling Rome’s early military history, while the later works were poetry, comedies, histories, and tragedies.
The rule of Augustus and the early part of the Roman Empire is considered as the golden age of Roman Literature. They wrote on papyrus scrolls or on parchment. They wrote with a metal pin that they dipped in ink.
Poetry is the most famous type of Roman literature. The Golden Age of Roman poetry was from c. 70 BCE to 14 CE. Some of the famous writers are Virgil, Horace, Catullus, Propertius, Tibullus, and Ovid. Virgil provided his audience with a more romanticized picture of Rome. His writings reflected his love of the rural life.
Horace was one of the famous writers in the Golden Age of Roman poetry. His poems reflected a joy for life and a love of nature. Gaius Valerius Catullus was one of the greatest authors. His poetry mixed both passion and knowledge with an awareness of life’s shortness.
Here’s a list of the most famous poetic works:
Speeches and Rhetoric were considered an important skill in Rome. Greek rhetoric appeared in republican Rome in the middle of the second century B.C. Marcus Tullius Cicero was one of the most famous Roman statesman. One of his writings was the De Inventione.
Cicero believed that the perfect orator should have the ability to speak wisely on any subject in a confident way. During his time, Rome had become a place where there is no space for the free expression of ideas. He was an idealist. Cicero was killed on December 7, 43 BC.
Historians were writers who recorded the history of Rome. Writing history is part of the Roman literature. Livy is one of the three great Roman historians. He began by composing and publishing in units of five books. Later on, he wrote 142 books. The books can be divided as follows:
Philosophy was considered part of the Roman literature. Stoicism was the most popular school of philosophy with the Romans. Stoicism stated that the universe is completely rational and controlled by orderly natural law. It was founded in Athens in about 300 bc by Zeno of Citium.
Stoicism can be divided highly into three periods: early (third century bc), middle (2nd and 1st centuries bc), and later (1st and 2nd centuries ad). Seneca, Epictetus, and the emperor Marcus Aureliu were some of the most famous Roman historians.
Roman Records was considered part of the Roman literature. Roman were so organized so they kept a lot of written records. They had records for every citizen’s personal information. They kept records for age, gender and marital status. They also kept records for the governmental decrees and laws.
Here’s a list of the most famous works of the Roman literature:
The Romans were professional engineers and builders. It was mentioned that They were probably the first to use concrete and cement as building materials. They wanted their art and architecture to be as applicable and functional as possible.
The Romans improved a lot of new methods for buildings and construction of all types including Roman roads, Roman arches, and aqueducts. They made the baked brick common in buildings. Romans improved architecture to express the empire’s power and wealth to the rest of the world.
Affected by Greek art, Roman artists frequently concentrated on gods and goddesses, in addition to philosophers, politicians, and other well-known individuals. Artists used different ways to show their work, including sculptures, paintings, pottery, reliefs, and architecture.
Roman architecture is popular for a number of reasons, including, arches, domes, aqueducts, amphitheatres, thermaes, temples, apartment blocks and houses.
The arch is one of the most important additions that the Romans added to the architecture. An arch is a hole in a building that is curved on top. They are tall structures, generally going back to imperial times, and are among the most amazing and remarkable archaeological landmarks in Rome.
The curved parts can be round or pointed next to each other. The Arch of Constantine is an example which is one of the most well-known arches in Rome. The keystone refers to the stone at the very top of the arch. Its role is to keep the rest of the arch stones from collapsing.
The most remarkable structure of arches is as follows: the fixed arch, the two-hinged arch, and the three-hinged arch. The fixed arch is frequently used in supported concrete bridges and tunnel buildings, where the spans are short. While The two-hinged arch is commonly used to bridge long spans.
The three-hinged arch is accordingly described to be statically determinate. The three-hinged arch is hinged at its base and the mid-span as well. It is frequently used for huge building roofs.
There are three major categories of arches as follows: circular, pointed, and parabolic. Arches with a circular form are also called rounded arches. Ancient Roman builders depended heavily on the rounded arch to spread to large, open areas. Pointed arches were frequently used by builders of Gothic-style architecture.
This innovation made it possible for higher and more closely spaced openings. the parabolic arch produces the most thrust at the base but can span the largest areas. It is frequently used in bridge patterns, where long extensions are needed.
Let’s have a look at the list of the most famous arches in Rome
| Name | Time of construction | Type of Arch | Address |
| Arch of Constantine | IV century AD | Triumphal Arch | 00186 Rome, Via di San Gregorio |
| Arch of Titus | I century AD | Triumphal Arch | Via Sacra, 00186 Rome, Roman Forum/Palatine, |
| Arch of Septimius Severus | II century AD | Triumphal Arch | Via dell’Arco di Settimio, 00186 Rome, Roman Forum, |
| Arch of Gallieno | II century AD | Celebratory Arch/Gate | 00186 Rome, Via di San Vito, |
| Arch of Dolabella and Silano | I century AD | Celebratory Arch | 00184 Rome, Via di S. Paolo della Croce, |
| Arch of Janus | IV century AD | Celebratory Arch | Via del Velabro, 5, 00186 Rome |
Domes are a characteristic of architecture that usually resembles the upper half of a sphere on top of a building. It helps to identify an important building. They used it to give speeches under it; as the voice sounds louder. There are various types of domes. Let’s check the table of the different kinds of domes:
| Type of Dome | Features | Pictures |
| Beehive dome | called a false dome or corbelled domeconsists of purely horizontal layersexample: Mycenaean Treasury of Atreus |  |
| Braced dome | single layer space frame in the shape of a domeoften has a very low weightcommonly used to cover spans of a maximum of 150 metres |  |
| Cloister vault Dome | Called polygonal domes domical vaults, and coved domesThe earliest known example is the Tabularium of Rome |  |
| Compound dome | called domes on pendentives or pendentive domeshave pendentives that assist a smaller diameter dome right above them |  |
| Onion dome | is larger than a hemispherical dome marked by a pointed top in an ogee profile.they are typically made of masonry. |  |
| Crossed-arch dome | One of the earliest types of ribbed vaultGeometry is a main feature of the designs |  |
| Geodesic dome | are the upper part of geodesic spheresare made from a frame of triangles in a polyhedron pattern.Such domes can be formed using a small number of simple elements |  |
| Hemispherical dome | is half of a sphereWas standardized by Roman builders |  |
| Oval dome | is a dome of oval form in plan, profile, or boththe oval plan Church of St. Gereon in Cologne |  |
| Parabolic dome | is a unique structurewas generally used in buildings in ancient times |  |
| Sail dome | called sail vaults, handkerchief vaults, domical vaultscan be thought of as pendentivesdraw the image of a square sail established at each corner and billowing upward |  |
| Saucer dome | called segmental domes or calottesare strong but have increased radial thrust |  |
| Umbrella dome | called gadrooned, fluted, ribbed, parachute, scalloped, organ-piped, pumpkin, melon, or lobed domesdivided at the base into curved segments |  |
Here’s a table with some of the city’s most famo
Let’s check the table with some of the city’s most famous domes:
| Dome | Brief Information | Picture |
| St. Peter’s Dome | – It wins the prize for the tallest dome in the world, it reaches130 metres high – It is one of the most popular domes in Rome and Vatican City. – Michelangelo designed it in 1547. |  |
| Pantheon Dome | — is still the biggest unsupported dome in the world – It is famous due to its huge dome – The dome’s main feature is the oculus at its centre Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore – It is a popular site to visit for many – It is decorated with two small domes – The architect Carlo Rainaldi designed in 1673 |  |
| Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore | – It is a popular site to visit for many – It is decorated with two small domes – The architect Carlo Rainaldi designed in 1673 |  |
| Church of Santa Maria di Loreto | – It required 70 years to complete building the church – It was finished in 1577 – Jacopo del Duca Designed it. |  |
Aqueducts are large systems for carrying water from one place to another. It is a channel made by people that carries water from one place to another. It was used to carry fresh water to cities or to farms for irrigation. The water would run on top of the aqueduct, and if it got to the city it would run into a castellum, or holding tank.
When Romans built cities, They would search for fresh sources of water and then build aqueducts that would take the water to the city. They also learned to build their aqueducts to be very tall, so it would be harder for the water to get dirty as it travelled to the city.
The water may be delivered underground through a tunnel or pipe, at ground level through a canal, or over the ground on a bridge. Engineers used gravity to maintain the water moving. As soon as the water arrived at a city, it ran into the main tank called a castellum.
Smaller pipes carry the water to the secondary castella. Then, the water moved through lead pipes to baths and public fountains. It needed 500 years to build Rome’s massive system. They constructed 11 aqueducts from 312 BCE to 226 CE.
Aqueducts were constructed in other countries like India, South Africa, Oman, Persia, Sir Lanka and North America. There are Modern aqueducts. They are considered a central part of many countries’ water distribution infrastructure. The United States’ aqueducts are some of the world’s biggest.
The Catskill Aqueduct delivers water to New York City over a span of 120 miles. There is also the Colorado River Aqueduct, which provides the Los Angeles area with water from the Colorado River for almost 250 miles. As well, California Aqueduct, which flows from the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta to Lake Perris, is 1,129.0 km.
The Central Arizona Project is located in the U.S.A. It is considered the biggest and most expensive aqueduct in the United States. It extends 336 miles from its source near Parker, Arizona to the metropolitan areas of Phoenix and Tucson.
The Oamaru Borough Race is an aqueduct which is located in New Zealand. It was made in the late 19th century. It carries water from the Waitaki River at Kurow to the coastal town of Oamaru. It extends for around 50 km. In Spain, the Tagus-Segura Water Transfer system of aqueducts started working in 1979. It extends for 286 kilometres from north to south.
There are different designs for the aqueducts. One of these designs is open channels. They are like small holes cut into the earth. The main element in the design of all open channels is their gradient. They have higher gradients.
A higher gradient allows a smaller channel to deliver the same amount of water as larger ones do with a low gradient. Yet, it increases the possibility of destructing the structure of the aqueduct by the water.
Artificial rills are another design for aqueducts. They are small canals or aqueducts of stone, brick, concrete, or other lining material. The Falaj irrigation system in today’s Abu Dhabi Emirate makes use of rills as part of its irrigation water system.
Tunnels are another aqueduct design. In this design, tunnels are constructed underground. This design is common in North Africa and Central Asia have vertical wells at regular intervals is called a qanat. An example of this design is the Qanat Firaun in Syria. It extends over 100 kilometres.
Pipes are one of the aqueduct’s designs. Pipelines are highly used in modern aqueducts. They are useful for carrying water over long distances. They can also be used to transfer treated water.
Here’s a list of water aqueducts:
The Colosseum is a giant amphitheatre located in Rome, the capital of Italy. It is shaped as an oval or round building with rising levels of seats arranged across a central open area. It is widely believed that Colosseum was the biggest and grandest amphitheatre in the entire Roman Empire.
It’s sometimes famous as the Flavian Amphitheatre because it was constructed during the reign of the Roman emperor Vespasian. The Flavian dynasty, or family, controlled the Roman Empire between 69 AD and 96 AD. The construction of the Colosseum began in 72 AD and was completed eight years later in 80 AD.
The Colosseum is built of stones and concrete. It had four major floors with eighty arches each. It is measured as 620 feet long, 512 feet wide, and 158 feet tall. It consumed more than 1.1 million tons of stone, concrete, and bricks to finish the Colosseum. About 50,000 to 80.000 people could be seated inside.
The best seat in the house was related to the emperor who sat in the Emperor’s Box. Their seating location gave the best view of the arena. Special seating locations were also given to senators. The nobles sat down closer to the major arena while the public sat at the upper tiers.
Below the Colosseum, tunnels were found called the hypogeum. These tunnels allowed for animals, actors, and gladiators to unexpectedly come out in the middle of the arena. They would make use of trap doors to add in special effects such as scenery.
In Ancient Rome, these buildings were used to please the population. Gladiator combats, executions and athletics were organized there. It contained battles between hand-to-hand combat between gladiators and men and animals. Many people were sent to death in the Colosseum, possibly 400,000 and a lot of animals died in the great Roman amphitheatre.
The Colosseum is also still a powerful symbol of Imperial Rome, despite being ruined by earthquakes and stone robbers. The southern side of the Colosseum was damaged during a large earthquake in 847.
Here’s a list of the 20 most famous amphitheatres in Rome:
1. Colosseum – Rome, Lazio, Italy
2. Nîmes Amphitheater – Nîmes, Occitanie, France
3. El Djem Amphitheatre: Tunisia, El Djem, Mahdia,
4. Arles Amphitheatre: Arles, Provence, France
5. Verona Amphitheatre – Verona, Veneto, Italy
6. Pula Amphitheatre: Pula, Istria, Croatia
7. Pompeii Amphitheatre: Pompeii, Campania, Italy
8. Uthina Amphitheatre: Tunisia, Mohammedia, Ben Arous Governorate
9. Leptis Magna Amphitheatre – Libya, Khoms, Murqub
10. Avenches Amphitheatre: Switzerland, Avenches, Vaud
11. Tarragona Amphitheatre – Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain
12. Mérida Amphitheater – Mérida, Extremadura, Spain
13. Italica Amphitheatre – Santiponce, Andalusia, Spain
14. Trier Amphitheatre – Trier, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany
15. Alexandria Amphitheatre – Alexandria, Alexandria, Egypt
16. Lecce Amphitheatre – Lecce, Apulia, Italy
17. Cagliari Amphitheatre – Cagliari, Sardinia, Italy
18. Flavian Amphitheatre of Pozzuoli: Italy, Pozzuoli, Campania,
19. Capua Amphitheater: Italy, Santa Maria Capua Vetere, Campania,
20. Aquincum Amphitheatre: Hungary, Budapest, Central Hungary,
Thermaes are many-sided rooms designed for a public bath where people went to bathe and meet each other. The public bath was like a community centre where people exercised, relaxed, and met with other people.
Romans would visit the public baths on daily basis, on feast days, and even on holy days. The major goal of the baths was a way for the Romans to clean themselves. people would generally do different physical activities. They would cover themselves with oil which they would then remove along with any dirt and sweat using a tool called a strigi.
It cost a little fee, to enter the public bath. The poor could pay to go. Sometimes a politician or emperor would pay for the public to go. The baths were divided depending on gender within the building. Each gender contained three pools: a hot one, a warm one and a cool one.
The three pools were given the names: the caldarium, the tepidarium and the frigidarium. There was frequently a steam bath. They frequently included an outdoor gymnasium where men would entertain in different ball games and activities. The changing room was popular as the apodyterium.
Here’s a list of the rooms:
Palaestra: This is where people could go and work out such as weightlifting before taking a shower.
Apodyterium: This is the place where visitors could change their costumes before using the main bathhouse facilities.
Caldarium: This room was generally the hottest.
Tepidarium: This room was generally warm and had a pool full of heated water. The tepidarium is where visitors would go to apply oil and scrape it off using a strigil.
Frigidarium: This was the room with the cold temperatures. The frigidarium generally marked a bathing pool full of cold, fresh water where visitors could bath in and refresh themselves to get clean.
You could also find other facilities according to how and where the baths were constructed like toilets, libraries, gardens and even massage rooms for therapy!
Rich people sometimes built their own private baths inside their homes. These could be rather expensive because they had to pay the government for the water that they used. Yet, they sometimes went to the public baths to entertain and meet people.
They used the aqueducts to provide the public baths with fresh water. The Romans made an underfloor heating system called a hypocaust to heat the water making use of fire.
Let’s check the list of Roman Public baths:
1. Baths of Caracalla – Rome, Italy
2. Baths of Diocletian – Rome, Italy
3. Roman Baths – Bath, England
4. Trier Imperial Baths: Trier, Germany
5. Thermes de Cluny: Paris, France
6. Baths of Antoninus: Tunis, Tunisia
7. Roman Thermae of Maximinus: Braga, Portugal
8. Baths of Ancyra: Ankara, Turkey
9. Op de Thermen: Maastricht, Netherlands
10. Roman Thermae: Varna, Bulgaria
11. Baths of Trajan: Rome Italy
12. Roman Berytus: Beirut, Lebanon
13. Taurine Baths: Civitavecchia, Italy
14. Badenweiler Baths – Baden-Württemberg, Germany
The remains of this complex are a major tourist attraction in southwest Germany.
The bathing complex was explored again in the late 18th century.
15. Hammam Essalihine – El Hamma, Algeria
It still works as a swimming pool today.
Hamman Essalihine means “The Bath of the Righteous” when translated into English.
Roman temples were one of the main characteristics of Roman culture. They were used with the purpose of worshipping gods in the Roman religion. They are considered evidence of the astonishing architectural achievements of the ancient Romans. The word temple in Latin represents a holy place.
Romans worshipped many gods and goddesses. They wanted holy places for every god to worship that’s why they constructed a lot of temples. Romans were impressed by the Etruscans and Greek architecture. Temples were commonly adorned with high-quality marble sculptures or reliefs.
Temples had a small number of windows and were very dark. There were two major types. The first type is Classical – such as those in Rome, with a big white entrance and many columns. The second one is Romano-British – a mix of Roman and Celtic moods, with a corridor across a central shrine room.
It is made up of the major room called a cella. It contained an image of the god they worshipped. It could also include holy objects like An altar, a statue, a pool of water, a fire or a tree.
Let’s check the list of Roman temples:
1. Temple of Augustus and Livia
It was devoted to Augustus and his wife Livia
2. Temple of Zeus at Aizanoi
The Temple of Zeus is the best-rescued Roman temple in all of Anatolia
3. Dougga Capitol
It is placed in, Dougga northern Tunisia
It was devoted to the three most important Roman gods: Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.
4. Garni Temple
It was devoted to Helios, the Roman god of the sun
It was created by the Armenian King Trdates I in the 1st century AD.
It was completely damaged by an earthquake In 1679.
It was renovated in the 1970s.
5. Temple of Augustus in Pula
It was devoted to the first Roman emperor, Augustus.
Later, the temple was changed into a church
It was extremely destroyed during the World War II
6. Sbeitla Forum Temples
It is placed in the mid-west of Tunisia
The three Roman temples are placed on one side of a wide almost square forum
7. Maison Carree
It was created in 16 BC
It is one of the best-rescued Roman temples in the world.
it was transformed into a church in the 4th century
8. Palmyra
It is one of Syria’s most famous tourist attraction
It contains the large Temple of Bel, the monumental arch and the colonnade that once was made up of 1,500 Corinthian columns.
9. Pantheon
It was made in 126 AD as a temple for all the Roman gods.
It was changed into a Roman Church in the 7th century.
It is made up of a big circular entrance with three ranks of large granite Corinthian columns.
10. Baalbek
It includes three temples: Jupiter, Bacchus and Venus
The best-rescued temple at the place is the Temple of Bacchus constructed in 150 AD.
The ancient Roman temple was devoted to Bacchus, The Roman god of wine.
11. Temples of the Forum Boarium
It was constructed in the second century BC
It was made up of two temples, the Temple of Hercules Victor and the Temple of Portunus
12. Venus Genetrix
It was made in Djemila, Algeria
This unrecovered ruin still has its initial walls and columns completely
Roman housing was split into two kinds. The common Roman citizens exist in apartment complexes under the name of ‘Insulae’ while the wealthy and influential Romans lived in big and comfortable complexes given the name ‘Domus’. A lot of wealthy Romans also got comfortable apartments in the countryside, called ‘Villa’.
Insulae are apartment blocks where common people reside. They were generally five to seven floors high. It kept from 30 to 50 people. They were of low quality, but they have got fresh water and sanitation. The individual apartments are usually made up of two small rooms.
They were made in timber, mud brick, and later primitive concrete. A typical insula was made across a courtyard with a block on the three sides of the courtyard and a wall on the fourth side to protect the residents from intruders. They used the courtyard was used for cooking, washing and socializing.
A typical insulae contained six or seven flats. Individual apartments are commonly made up of two small rooms. The bottom floor of the insulae generally had shops and stores that opened out to the streets. The upper floors were used as housing apartments. The bigger apartments were also close to the bottom with the smallest at the top.
The top floor apartments were not supported with water or heating. These buildings were generally damaged by fire. A lot of insulae were not built very well. Historians were certain that at the time of the Great Roman Fire, 42000 or more insulae were found in the city of Rome alone.
Domus are bigger and more prosperous housing complexes where rich and influential Romans lived A typical Domus contained a door near the street that opened into an entrance hall that headed to a courtyard called ‘Atrium. Other rooms such as bedrooms, and kitchen might be found to the sides of the atrium.
The atrium was the most essential part of the house. It was where guests were welcomed. It often had only a little furniture to give the impact of a large space. Beyond the atrium, we could find the office. There was often a backyard.
The atrium either had no roof or a hole in the roof to work as a skylight. It also had an opening to let rainwater fall through it and get collected in a tank in the centre of the atrium floor. Romans adorned their rooms with coloured plaster walls and mosaics.
Let’s check some of the rooms in a typical Roman house:
Vestibulum
Atrium: An open room where guests were welcomed.
Tablinum: The office dedicated to the man of the house.
Triclinium: The dining room. This was often the most amazing and adorned room of the house in order to impress guests that were dining over.
Cubiculum: The bedroom.
Culina: The kitchen.
A Roman villa was a Roman country house constructed for the upper classes. They had numerous rooms including servants’ quarters, exercise rooms, courtyards, baths, pools, storage rooms, and gardens. Villas were larger than Domus as the countryside allowed more space for building houses.
There were two types of villas. The villa Urbana was a country place within easy reach of Rome. The villa Rustica was a farmhouse land, like the succeeding English country house. It was inhabited by servants who took care of the land.
Roman sculpture played a vital part in Roman daily life. A lot of artists designed sculptures, which were put down all throughout the country. There was even a popular school dedicated to sculpture. Many sculptures acknowledged their art in the Aphrodisias Sculpting School.
A typical sculpture could have described any part of the subject, from the head to the entire body. Roman artists often made sculptures using marble, stone, and clay. They also used concrete invented by the ancient Romans.
The wealthy Romans adorned their big homes with sculptures. Other popular topics for sculptures included gods and goddesses, popular athletes, philosophers, and successful generals. Sculptures describing only the head that were popular as busts.
Romans were fond of paintings. The walls of the homes of rich Romans were often adorned with paintings. They preferred decorating rooms with paintings because they made rooms seem bigger. Most of these paintings have been ruined over time.
Their paintings often portrayed scenes from everyday life and sometimes maintained special occasions. Some painted scenes pictured important Roman battles and other historical events.
Roman pottery was also used to express works of art. pottery was done in big quantities. They mostly produced pottery for useful reasons. They were famous across the whole ancient Roman Empire and even farther.
Pottery also depicted important people and scenes of Roman life. Some artists made mosaics by working with small pieces of glass or stone to make a bigger image. It was split into fine and coarse ware. The coarse was used continually for everyday activities while the fine worked as serving vessels.
Relief is another commonly used form of art. They were used to document significant events that occurred throughout Roman history. This is when a scene was effectively cut into the stone, usually as part of a building or as a standing alone work. Trajan’s Column in Rome, Italy, is one of the most remarkable examples of relief art.
Romans desired their art to be as effective and valuable as possible. They elaborated many new techniques for buildings of all types like Roman roads, Roman arches, and aqueducts. Roman architecture is famous for different reasons, including, arches, amphitheatres, domes, aqueducts, thermaes, temples, apartment blocks and houses.
Ancient Romans lived on a lot of very fertile lands. They lived close to the countryside. Farming in ancient Rome was one of the most important and most recognized jobs. Wealthy Romans had large farms with many employees, while poor farmers had smaller farms and worked the fields themselves.
Farms were categorized into 3 types. Iugera was the standard unit used for land measurement. The first category of farm sizes includes small farms which ranged 18 to 108 Iugera.
The second category is the medium farm sizes which ranged from 800 to 500 Iugera. The third category was the large estates which were also referred to as Latifundia measured to be more than 500 iugera.
Over 90% of the ancient Romans lived in the countryside, and the most common job there was to be a farmer. Farmers were very hard workers, and they would get up before daylight, and work until it was dark. They worked hard to get the fields ready, to plant food, pick food, and other posts on the farm.
There were almost three major foods on almost every Roman’s table, bread, oil and wine. The most common crop harvest by ancient Roman farmers was wheat, which can be made into bread and other grain-based foods. Grapes were other things that were farmed in the Roman society.
The wheat was plowed with a tool that is called an ard plow, which is a very heavy stick that is pulled along the fields by an ox. Later on a coulter was used with the other farming tools. It was a tool that is used to mix soil.
Romans also used a tool called a Punic Cart. It was used in rolling over the grain to press it down and make the harvesting easier. The Romans used an early heating system, called a hypocaust to help speed up the drying process for the grain.
The ancient Roman farmers skimmed milk out of cows. They also employed mules and oxens to carry out heavy tasks on their farmlands. They got cheese from sheep and leather from goats.
The ancient Roman farmers faced a lot of problems which include unstable weather conditions, war incidents on farmlands which often resulted in the destruction of farm products, a decrease in soil fertility, and loss of lives. They also faced problems from slaves who often revolt against the orders of their masters.
Leather and hides of goats were used for other materials. Farmers practiced beekeeping for sugar production and certain percentage of Roman farmers reared snails for special meals.
The ancient Roman farmers practiced 4 types of farm management systems. The first one was that farming was done by farm owners and their family members. The second type was that farming was done by tenants and farm owners. They share the farm outputs. The third type was that farming was done by slaves owned by noblemen and were supervised by slave managers.
The style of Roman clothing was influenced by the Ancient Greeks and developed over time to integrated styles and costumes from across the Roman Empire. Romans used different types of fabrics and materials for manufacturing clothes. Wool was the most commonly used fabric. It is strong, sturdy and comfortable. It’s also good against the cold. Women often spun their household’s wool, except in rich families where a slave would be in charge of this task.
Sometimes clothes were made from rare materials such as linen from Egypt, cotton from India, and silk from China. Silk was a very expensive material to purchase so it was reserved for rich Romans. Cotton was often used to make wealthy Romans’ tunics. Leather from pigs or sheep was most commonly used to make shoes in Roman times.
The very early Romans wore a garment called a toga. It was an important item. The colors of togas had meaning. A toga could be edged with purple for high rank. Emperors were the only Romans who could wear entirely purple togas. In Rome, clothing reflected status and practical needs as well. A red-lined Toga often showed shame and disgrace, often worn when exiled or before an execution.
Romans started wearing tunics instead of the toga. A tunic, called a chilton, looks like a long t-shirt just above the knees. It could be either sleeveless or short-sleeved. A cloak was also worn by Roman men over their tunic.
Summer tunics were made of linen while winter tunics were made of wool. During the colder months, they also wore something that looked like trousers. The Romans invented socks, which they wore during colder times. Roman men wore ‘toga pulla’ when mourning the death of a dear one. It was completely black in colour.
Roman men wore rings on every finger and even arm bracelets. Hairstyles changed with the times. At times long hair with beards and mustaches was in style. At other times being clean-shaven with short hair was in style. Sometimes men even curled and braided their hair.
Roman women wore long tunics which covered their bodies entirely. It was the primary garment worn by peasants and unmarried women. On top of the tunic, some Roman women wore a long piece of woven linen called a “stola”. It was a long pleated dress held on by belts, that went all the way down to their ankles.
The stola was either short or long-sleeved, depending on the season. Only married women wore a stola, unmarried women simply wore a tunic.
In winter, Roman women wore a shawl made of wool to keep them warm called a “palla”.
Women’s clothing was often much more colorful than men’s. Women belonging to wealthy families also wore garments made from silk and other expensive imported fabrics. Rich Roman women paid close attention to their jewelry, hair, and makeup; many had slaves in charge of helping them get ready.
The ancient Roman women loved decorated necklaces, pins, earrings, bracelets, and rings. Women often colored their hair, usually golden-red. They used hair extension to make their hair thicker or longer. They also liked pearls.
Roman clothes for kids were very simple. Boys wore a tunic down to their knees and a cloak if it was cold. In Roman times, children wore a “bulla”, a special locket around their neck, which was given to them at a young age. Girls would wear the amulet until they were married, and boys until they turned sixteen.
On a boy’s sixteenth or seventeenth birthday, the boy became a citizen. They celebrate the day. The boy dressed in a white tunic, which his father adjusted. The day ended with a dinner party, given by the father, in honor of the new Roman citizen.
Roman slaves wore very modest clothing. Their clothing depended upon the task they performed. Domestic slaves were given basic clothing like loincloth and cloak to wear. However, educated and skilled slaves were provided with better clothing.
Romans mostly wore footwear made of leather. Roman men and women would usually wear the same type of footwear. There were two types of footwear worn by Romans. The first one was the Calceus. It was open-toed sandals.
The second type was the Soleae. It was a full shoe with a closed toe. The color and style also depicted the social standing of a person. Senators or patricians wore red-colored shoes.
The calcei was an outdoor shoe made from soft leather that covered the toes and was worn by most Romans. They were made by fixing strips of leather to a tough leather or cork base.
Rich Romans would sometimes have a slave that carried their sandals so they could change into them when entering a building. Indoors, the Romans could also wear slippers as well.
Roman soldiers wore the caliga – which was a type of military boot that looked a bit like sandals. They had hobnails and were incredibly hard-wearing. This was necessary for the long marches that soldiers would have to do every day.
Ancient Rome experienced three different types of government. The first one was the Kingdom. The second type was the Republic. Finally, The last type was the Empire.
When Rome began, it was a kingdom. Early Rome was ruled by a series of kings for about 200 years. However, the history of the Roman Kingdom began with the city’s founding, traditionally dated to 753 BC, and ended with the overthrow of the kings and the establishment of the Republic in about 509 BC.
As Rome grew and started to expand, they needed a reason that their king should be in charge of other villages. They invented the myth of Romulus and Remus. Romans believed it. Some kings were good while others were bad.
The last king of Rome was an especially bad king. Tarquin the Proud was a tyrant and the people hated him. It is not clear in the history of Rome how the ancient Romans got rid of Tarquin. Then, Romans became free and started a new type of government.
King Romulus created the Senate. According to legend, There were six more kings: Numa Pompilius, Tullo Ostilio, Anco Marzio, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus. After Romulus death, the Roman Senate was not able to elect a new king. Kings had absolute power.
Finally, the Curiate Assembly was allowed to vote in a new king of Rome. They chose Numa Pompilius. Numa, unlike Romulus, was against war and thought the best course for Rome was peace, Numa is honoured for bringing religion into the average Roman everyday life.
Whenever a king died, Rome entered a period of interregnum. the Senate, was responsible for finding a new king. The Senate would assemble and appoint one of its own members—the interrex—to serve for a period of five days for one single reason which was to nominate the next king of Rome.
After the five-day period, the interrex would choose another Senator for another five-day term. This process would continue until a new king was elected. Once the interrex found a suitable nominee to the kingship, the Senate review the nominee. If the nominee passed, he will be elected as the king.
There were two other acts that still had to take place before having the full regal authority and power. First, it was necessary to obtain the divine will of the gods respecting his appointment. Following traditional ways, a forecaster had to announce that he is given the approval by gods.
The second act was granting the king dominance over the kingdom. The Assembly’s previous vote only determined who was to be king but didn’t provide him with the necessary power. Accordingly, the king himself proposed to the Assembly a law granting him dominance, and the Assembly by voting in favour of the law would grant it.
The Roman Republic lasted for For 500 years in Ancient Rome. was run by large group of men. They called themselves members of the Senate. The Romans elected the consuls. The consuls are the two top senators. Then, the consuls chose the other senators from the capable patricians.
Senators were chosen for only one year. This system worked well. Senators applied the old laws on all citizen equally. They also added new laws. One of these laws was that you were innocent until proven guilty of any crime. Another law provided every citizen had the right to challenge their accusers in court.
They engraved the laws on tablets of metal and put them in the Forum in Rome to make sure that all the citizens knew the laws. These laws were called the Twelve Tables because there were twelve different sections. They were about crime and property and family matters like marriage and inheritance.
As time passed, Rome had problems that the Senate was unable to solve. One of the problems was that there was no money to pay the military, pave roads, and do the many jobs they did. They kept raising taxes, but the people didn’t have any more money to give.
As well, Rome suffered from corruption amongst elected officials. senators began to fight frequently, sometimes using violence. Crime was terrible. It wasn’t safe to walk the streets of Rome. Things were rapidly spinning out of control.
As Rome expanded, its military leaders began to have more power, due partially to having control of Rome’s army so far away from the decision-makers in the Senate. In 45 BC Julius Caesar took over the Roman Republic and made himself the supreme dictator.
Here is a list of some of the titles and their responsibilities:
| Title | Job Responsibilities |
| Consuls | Was at the top of the Roman Republic. was a very powerful position. – could veto each other if they didn’t agree on something. decided when to go to war, how much taxes to collect, and what the laws were. |
| Senators | – advised the consuls. – were selected for life. |
| Plebeian Council | – was also called the Peoples Assembly. – Through it the common people, plebeians, could elect their own leaders, magistrates, pass laws, and hold court. |
| Tribunes | – were the representatives of the Plebeian Council. – could veto laws made by the Senate. |
| Governors | – ruled the land or province. – would be in charge of the local Roman army- would also be responsible to collect taxes. Governors -were also called proconsuls. |
| Aedile | – was a city official – was responsible for the maintenance of public buildings as well as public festivals. |
| Censor | – counted the citizens – kept track of the census- had some responsibilities to maintain public morality- look after public finances. |
| The Constitution | was more of a set of guidelines and principals that were passed down from generation to generation provided for separate branches of government and balances of power. |
The Roman Empire was born. This new leadership was a dictatorship. Julius Caesar’s adopted son, Augustus, became the new head of government. Augustus knew the people would never accept a king. He wanted to be more powerful than a consul. So, he called himself an emperor.
Although the Roman Empire kept the Senate and other positions in place, the Emperor had absolute control, and his word could not be denied, regardless of how his people felt or voted. Having full control of the army, it was nearly impossible for an Emperor to be overthrown.
There were good things about changing to an Empire. Women gained power. Crime was reduced. They established welfare programs to help the poor. They built huge entertainment centers and admission was free.
However, the Roman Empire, like the Roman Republic before it, failed. It was mainly of the same reasons. Graft and corruption were spread amongst elected officials. They imposed excessive taxes on the citizens.
There was little money in the treasury. There was no money to pay the military, roads in disrepair, and other problems the government did not or could not solve.
Finally, the Roman leaders decided to split Rome into two empires: Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. The Western Empire ruled out of the city of Rome. The Eastern Roman Empire was ruled out of Constantinople, today’s Istanbul in Turkey. The Eastern Roman Empire would become known as Byzantium or the Byzantine Empire.
The Roman Empire remained a powerful force for another 300 years before beginning to decline. Following the rule of Constantine, the Empire fell early in the fifth century. Many historians mark 476 as the year that the Empire ended and the Middle Ages began.
Here is a list of the Roman Emperors with the dates:
1st century CE
2nd century CE
3rd century CE
4th century CE
5th century CE
The Romans believed in lots of gods. The Roman gods are actually inspired by the Greek gods. Most of the gods and goddesses worshipped by the Romans were Greek gods and goddesses with different names. The Olympians are a group of 12 gods who ruled after the overthrow of the Titans. All the Olympians are related in some way.
Early Roman mythology says that Rome was founded by two twin Gods – Romulus and Remus. Romulus and Remus were raised by a she-wolf. They wanted to form a new city. They fought over where the new city should be formed. Finally, Romulus killed Remus. This is how the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC.
Many Ancient Romans had shrines in their homes to worship Gods. Ancient Romans all believed that the Gods were divine. They believed that if you maintained a good relationship with the Gods, they would be kind to you.
Here is a list of the Roman gods and goddesses:
Here is a list of the Roman gods vs Greek gods:
| Roman name of God | Greek name of God | Description |
| Jupiter | Zeus | He was the master of the gods and the main god of the Romans. In his hand, he held thunderbolts which he could hurl from the sky. |
| Juno | Hera | She was the wife of Jupiter, the goddess of women and fertility. Her symbols were pomegranate and a peacock. |
| Mars | Ares | He was the god of war, the strongest and most fearsome god, except for Jupiter. |
| Venus | Aphrodite | She was the goddess of love and beauty. |
| Minerva | Athene | She was the goddess of wisdom, learning, art crafts, and industry. Her symbol was the owl. |
| Neptune | Poseidon | He was the powerful god of the sea. His symbol was the trident. |
| Ceres | Demeter | She was the goddess of the harvest, always depicted carrying a bundle of grain. |
| Vulcan | Hephaistos | He was the blacksmith of the gods and a god of the underworld. If he stoked his furness too hard volcanos might erupt. He was the god of blacksmiths and volcan. |
| Diana | Artemis | She was the goddess of hunting and the goddess of the moon. |
| Mercury | Hermes | He was the messenger of the gods. the wings on his helmet and sandals allowed him to travel very quickly to wherever a god might send him. He was the god of travelers and tradesmen. |
| Vesta | Hestea | She was the goddess of the hearth and home and was very important to Romans. In her temple, a flame was always kept burning as in the ‘hearth of Rome’. |
| Apollo | Apollo | God of music, healing, light, and truth. He moved the sun across the sky |
Rome is one of the most powerful civilizations whose empire ruled Europe for over 1,000 years. It spans from 27 BCE to the 5th century CE. There were many cities and countries that were important places for the Roman Empire’s Geography, like Constantinople, Athens and Milan.
Various main geographical features in the Italian peninsula provided opportunities for the Roman civilization to flourish. Rome began as a tiny village along the Tiber River. It was an excellent location, with seven hills offering a natural defensive barrier.
During the most powerful stages of Rome, it included Albania, Austria, Algeria, Belgium, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Egypt, England, France, Gibraltar, Greece, Hungary, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Luxembourg, Moldova, Morocco, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, Wales.
The Tiber River was a source of freshwater and rich soil needed to support the development of people, animals, and crops of Rome. However, there was still enough distance between Rome and the sea to avoid the attack. Romans could France within a couple of days on horseback.
Rome is located East of the river. It begins in the Apennine mountains and flows to the Tyrrhenian Sea. The river provided easy transportation. Rome’s imports and exports could easily flow in and out of the city. In ancient times, there were enemies everywhere. They started their city on the top of one hill. They walled around it.
Rome was protected by two mountain ranges, the Alps and the Apennines. The Alps provided a roadblock that forced invaders to move through narrow passages which allowed the Romans to prepare and attack. The Apennine Mountains divided the peninsula in half, providing protection against invasion from the east.
Since Rome was lost to the Mediterranean Sea, this helped them in conquering new lands. They managed to build a navy which assisted them in conquering neighboring territories. They finally took control of all of the shores of the Mediterranean.
Here is a map of the Roman Empire at its height:
The Roman Empire was one of the greatest and most influential civilizations in world history. Ancient Rome existed for more than 1,200 years and, at one point, controlled much of the known world, including Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. It was a kingdom for about 200 years, a Republic for about 500 years, and an Empire for about 500 years.
Ancient Rome was founded in 753 B.C.E. by the sons of Mars, the god of war. Here’s a timeline of events that covers 1200 years of growth and culture. It ranges from 753 B.C.E. to its final days during the 15th century C.E.
Romans were great at different aspects of life. They mastered architecture. They introduced new structures in different fields like amphitheaters, theatres, and stadiums. Romans mastered engineering as well. This was clear through the construction of aqueducts and paved roads.
Here is a list of the most important achievements of ancient Romans:
Roman gladiators were people who would fight in gladiator games as entertainment for large crowds of people in Rome. They would fight with each other or animals, sometimes to the death. They were armed with deadly weapons and in most cases fought till either one of them accepted defeat or was killed fighting.
Gladiators were usually slaves and criminals. They trained at special schools. They used many kinds of weapons. Some fought with swords, while others used knives or tridents. They fight in a large arena called an amphitheater. The winner received palm branches and sometimes also money. A champion might be allowed to retire. Sometimes he gained his freedom.
The first known gladiator show in Rome took place in 264 BCE. The early gladiator games were a part of war victory celebrations. Gladiator owners and sponsors of such games arranged extravagant gladiator fights in honour of dead citizens to gain favours from their powerful and rich descendants.
Gladiator games reached the peak of their popularity in the last days of the Roman Republic. The rise of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire caused gladiator fights gradually ceased to take place. The Christian emperor Constantine I outlawed them in 325 ce.
There were a few women who were gladiators, and they fought other women. Interestingly certain emperors like Caligula, Commodus, Titus, and Claudius also participated in such sports. However, the fights involving emperors were designed to stop minimal risk to them.
Sometimes, fights lasted for a long time. If the crowd got bored, the referee might call the fight a drawn. If the emperor was in attendance, he would ask the crowd to decide on whether or not to kill the loser, but people had their favourites. They wanted their gladiators alive, so they could fight again another day.
If a gladiator died in the arena, their trainer could charge the person who sponsored the event up to 100 times the cost of a gladiator who survived. If a gladiator was badly hurt or admitted defeat, the crowd watching in the arena could decide what happened to them.
Rome passed by three different stages. The first one was Rome as a kingdom. The second phase was Rome as a republic. The third stage was Rome as an empire. The Romans believed in lots of gods. The Roman gods are actually inspired by the Greek gods.
Ancient Roman literature began sometime around 240 B.C. Drama and poetry that were so influential started to appear by the end of Rome. The style of Roman clothing was influenced by the Ancient Greeks and developed over time to integrated styles and costumes from across the Roman Empire.
The Romans were professional engineers and builders. They developed many new techniques for buildings and construction of all types including Roman roads, Roman arches, and aqueducts.
Romans wanted their art to be as practical and useful as possible. They developed many new techniques for buildings and construction of all types including Roman roads, Roman arches, and aqueducts. Roman architecture is well known for various reasons, including, arches, domes, aqueducts, amphitheaters, thermals, temples, apartment blocks, and houses.
If you enjoyed this content why not dive into some more historical eras – check out these articles: Vikings History, Ancient Egyptians – The First Woman Pharaoh, Greek Mythology – Medusa, Native American History. Victorian Era, Ibn Khaldun or Celts
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